Rabu, 02 Mei 2012

Our Footwear, Which One Is Your Favorite?


Pointe shoes


Pointe shoes are a special kind of shoes for ballet. These shoes are like the basic need of ballet dancers, since they need them for pointe work (i.e., ballet position in which the body is balanced on the extreme tips of the toes). Sometimes these shoes are called “toe shoes”. Before the French Revolution women’s ballet shoes were heeled. After the revolution they became non-heeled and were tied with ribbons to secure the feet.
They are normally worn by female dancers, though male dancers may wear them for unorthodox roles such as the ugly stepsisters in Cinderella, Bottom in A Midsummer Night's Dream, or men performing as women in dance companies such as Les Ballets Trockadero and Grandiva. They are manufactured in a variety of colors, most commonly in shades of light pink.

Moccasins


The moccasin is a soft and flexible shoe originally worn by North American Indians. Different tribes had different types of moccasins. The soft soles don’t only offer protection for the feet, but also the comforting for the wearers to feel the ground.
moccasin is a slipper, made of deerskin or other soft leather, consisting of a sole and sides made of one piece of leather, stitched together at the top, and sometimes with a vamp (additional panel of leather). Though sometimes worn inside, it is chiefly intended for outdoor use, as in exploring wildernesses and running. The sole is soft and flexible and the upper part often is adorned with embroidery or beading. Etymologically, the moccasin derives from the Algonquian language Powhatan word makasin (cognate to Massachusett mohkisson / mokussinOjibwa makizinMi'kmaq mksɨn), and from the Proto-Algonquian word *maxkeseni (shoe).

Clown shoes


What makes a clown funny? Well, of course his slapstick actions and attire. One trademark of a clown is his shoes. What’s so special about them? Well, standard clown shoes are usually three times the size of the clown’s regular shoe size.

Bakiak


These are another pair of wooden sandals. In some parts of Indonesia, people like to wear this footwear even though it’s not comfortable due to its sturdiness. Surprisingly, In the Philippines, bakiak is the name of the Philippines’ national sandals. Of course the bakiak that they have are fancier than ours.

Dutch clogs/Klompen


clog is a type of footwear made in part or completely from wood. Clogs are used worldwide and although the form may vary by culture, within a culture the form often remained unchanged for centuries.
The Dutch clog was traditionally a work shoe made of a single block of wood initially worn during the Industrial Revolution between 1815-1914. Because of the rigidity of the material, a pair of socks was needed whenever people wanted to wear klompen. Surely they could also be worn barefoot with he help of some thick straw padding. Traditional clogs were often worn in heavy labor. Today they remain in use as protective clothing inagriculture and in some factories and minesClogs are also used in several different styles of dance. When worn for dancing an important feature is the sound of the clog against the floor. This is one of the fundamental roots of tap, but with the tap shoes the taps are free to click against each other and produce different sound to clogs.


Havaianas


When you think about something fashionable that’s really Brazilian, you should think about the Havaianas, a Brazilian flip flop brand exported internationally. The name Havaianas is a Portuguese word for Hawaiians. The simple and functional design inspired by Japanese rice straw sandals and the use of good material that makes a pair of Havaianas lasts longer than the usual flip flop have won people’s hearts and resulted in about 105 million pairs of Havaianas produced yearly.

Espadrilles

 

Espadrilles, or alpargatos, as they are called in their country of origin Spain, have been made in Catalonia since the 14th century as peasant footwear. They are made of cotton fabric or canvas with soles made of rope or rubber material that’s molded to look like rope. The soles may be flat, platform, or wedge-shaped. Once peasant footwear, espadrilles have become more popular, especially In Spain and the Philippines where many people wear them during summer.
Espadrilles are normally casual flat, but sometimes high heeled shoes originating from the Pyrenees. They usually have a canvas or cotton fabric upper and a flexible sole made of rope or rubber material moulded to look like rope. The jute rope sole is the defining characteristic of an espadrille, the uppers vary widely in style. In French Canada, however, espadrille is the usual term for running shoes or sneakers.
Once peasant footwear, espadrilles have grown in popularity, especially in Catalonia and the Basque Country, where many men and women wear them during the spring and summer months. Designer espadrilles are now widely available. They are usually manufactured in Bangladesh and Spain. Modern espadrilles are predominantly for women, though some men's shoes are made in this style. As of 2012, they are a trend in Mexico.
The soles of espadrilles may be flat, platform or wedge shaped, and can be made of natural fiber or synthetic fiber rope, or flexible synthetic materials cast to resemble rope. Uppers may be made from nearly any substance, and may have open or closed toes, open or closed backs, and can be slip-on or tied to the ankle with laces. Thousands of varieties of espadrilles can be found, from inexpensive bargain brands to high priced designer brands.


Getas


Getas are a pair of Japanese wooden sandals usually worn with a kimono. Getas were not made or worn for fashion, but simply for a practical reason: to prevent the kimono from getting mud-splattered. Geta (木屐/下駄) are a form of traditional Japanese footwear that resemble both clogs and flip-flops. They are a kind of sandal with an elevated wooden base held onto the foot with a fabric thong to keep the foot well above the ground. They are worn with traditional Japanese clothing such as kimono or yukata, but (in Japan) also with Western clothing during the summer months. Sometimes geta are worn in rain or snow to keep the feet dry, due to their extra height and impermeability compared to other footwear such as zōri.

Boots


boot is a type of footwear and a specific type of shoe. Most boots mainly cover the foot and the ankle and extend up the leg, sometimes as far as the knee or even the hip. Most boots have a heel that is clearly distinguishable from the rest of the sole, even if the two are made of one piece. Traditionally made of leather or rubber, modern boots are made from a variety of materials. Boots are worn both for their functionality – protecting the foot and leg from water, snow, mud or hazards or providing additional ankle support for strenuous activities – and for reasons of style and fashionHigh-top athletic shoes are generally not considered boots, even though they do cover the ankle, primarily due to the absence of a distinct heel.

Slip-on Shoes


Slip-ons are typically low, lace-less shoes. The style most commonly seen, known as a loafer or slippers in American culture, has a moccasin construction. First appearing in the mid-1930s from Norway, Aurlandskoen (Aurland Shoe), they began as casual shoes, but have increased in popularity to the point of being worn in America with city lounge suits. They are worn in many situations in a wide variety of colours and designs, often featuring tassels on the front, or metal decorations (the 'Gucci' loafer).
On college campuses, loafers are worn casually. Loafers are comfortable shoes and can be worn "fashionably" by both men and women, with jeans, shorts, pants, and dresses. They come in a variety of colors, styles, and brands. Loafers are very comfortable and do not harm the feet.

Oxford Shoes


An Oxford is a style of laced shoe characterized by shoelace eyelet tabs that are stitched underneath the vamp, a construction method that is also sometimes referred to as "closed lacing". Oxfords first appeared in Scotland and Ireland, where they are occasionally called Balmorals after the Queen's castle in Scotland, Balmoral. 
Oxfords are traditionally constructed of leather and were historically plain, formal shoes but are now available in a range of styles and materials that complement both casual and formal forms of dress. It is derived from the Oxonian, a half-boot with side slits that gained popularity at Oxford University in 1800. The side slit evolved into a side lace that eventually moved to the instep, as students rebelled against knee-high and ankle-high boots. The toe cap can either be lined with two narrow rows of stitching, perforated holes along the end cap stitching (quarter-brogue), perforated holes along the end cap stitching and on the toe cap (semi-brogue), or a semi-brogue with the classical wingtip design (full-brogue).

Selasa, 31 Januari 2012

Pharynx



Through chewing, or mastication, the tongue manipulates food, the teeth grind it and the food is mixed with saliva. As a result, the food is reduced to a soft, flexible mass called a bolus that is easily swallowed. When food is first swallowed, it passes from the mouth into the pharynx.
The pharynx is a funnel-shaped tube that extends from the internal nares to the esophagus posteriorly and the larynx anteriorly. The pharynx is composed of skeletal muscle and lined by mucous membrane. Whereas the nasopharynx functions only in respiration, both the oropharynx and laryngopharynx have digestive as well as respiratory functions. Food that is swallowed passes from the mouth into the oropharynx and laryngopharynx before passing into the esophagus. Muscular contractions of the oropharynx and laryngopharynx help propel food into the esophagus.
Swallowing, or deglutition, is a mechanism that moves food from the mouth to the stomach. It is helped by saliva and mucus and involves the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus. Swallowing is divided into three stages: (1) the voluntary stage, in which the bolus is moved into the oropharynx; (2) the pharyngeal stage, the involuntary passage of the bolus through the pharynx into the esophagus; and (3) the esophageal stage, the involuntary passage of the bolus through the esophagus into the stomach.

TEETH





The teeth (dentes) are accessory structures of the digestive system located in sockets of the alveolar processes are covered mandible and maxillae. The alveolar processes are covered by the gingivae, or gums, which extend slightly into each socket forming the gingival sulcus. The sockets are lined by the periodontal ligament, which consists of dense fibrous connective tissue and is attached to the socket walls and the cemental surface of the roots. Thus, it anchors the teeth In position and also acts as a shock absorber to dissipate the forces of chewing.
A typical tooth consists of three principal portions. The crown is the exposed portion above the level of the gums. The root consists of one to three projections embedded in the socket. The neck is the constricted junction line of the crown and the root near the gumline.
Teeth are composed primarily of dentin, a calcified connective tissue that gives the tooth its basic shape and rigidity. The dentin encloses a cavity. The enlarged part of the cavity, the pulp cavity, lies in the crown and is filled with pulp, a connective tissue containing blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. Narrow extensions of the pulp cavity run through the root of the tooth and are called root canals. Each root canal has an opening at its base, the apical foramen. Through the foramen enter blood vessels bearing nourishment, lymphatic vessels affording protection, and nerves providing sensation. The dentin of the crown is covered by enamel that consists primarily of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. Enamel is the hardest substance in the body and protects the tooth from the wear of chewing. It is also a barrier against acids that easily dissolve the dentin. The dentin of the root is covered by cementum, another bonelike substance, which attaches the root to the periodontal ligament.

Salivary Glands



Saliva is a fluid that is continuosly secreted by glands associated with the mouth. Ordinarily, just enough saliva is secreted to keep the mucous membranes of the mouth and pharynx moist, but when food enters the mouth secretion increases so the saliva can lubricate, dissolve, and begin the chemical breakdown of the food. The mucous membrane lining the cheeks contains many small glands, the buccal glands, that secrete small amounts of saliva. There are also minor salivary glands in the lips, tongue, and hard and soft palates that secrete small amounts of saliva. However, most saliva is secreted by the major salivary glands, accessory structures that lie outside the mouth and pour their contents into ducts that empty into the oral cavity. There are three pairs of salivary glands: parotid, submandibula, and sublingual glands.
The parotid glands are located inferior and anterior to the ears between the skin and the masseter muscle. They are compound tubuloacinar glands. Each secretes into the oral cavity vestibule via a duct, calles parotid (Stensen’s) duct, that pierces the buccinators muscle to open into the vestibule opposite the upper second molar tooth. The submandibular glands, which are compound acinar glands, are found beneath the base of the tongue in the posterior part of the floor of the mouth. Their ducts, the submadibular (Wharton’s) glands, run superficially under the mucosa on their side of the midline of the floor of the mouth and enter the oral cavity proper on either side of the lingual frenulum. The sublingual glands, also compound acinar glands, are superior to the submandibular glands, and their ducts, the lesser sublingual (Rivinus’s) ducts, open into the floor of the mouth in the oral cavity proper.
The parotid gland receives its blood supply from branches of the external carotid artery and is drained by vessels that are tributaries of the external jugular vein. The submandibular gland is supplied by branches of the facial artery and drained by tributaries of the facial vein. The sublingual gland is supplied by the sublingual branch of the lingual artery and the submental branch of the facial artery and is drained by tributaries of the sublingual and submental veins.
The salivary glands receive both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervations. The sympathetic fibers form plexuses on the blood vessels that supply the glands and serve as vasoconstrictors. The parotid gland receives sympathetic fibers from the plexus on the external carotid artery, whereas the submandibular and sublingual glands receive sympathetic fibers that contribute to the sympathetic plexus and accompany the facial artery to the glands. The parasympathetic fibers of the glands consist of secretomotor fibers to the glands.
The fluids secreted by the buccal glands, minor salivary glands, and the three pairs of major salivary glands constitute saliva. Amounts of saliva secreted daily vary considerably but range from 1000 to 1500 ml. Chemically, saliva is 99.5 percent water and 0.5 percent solutes. Among the solutes are salts, dissolved gases, and various organic substances, including urea and uric acid, serum albumin and globulin, mucin, the bacteriolytic enzyme aysozyme, and the digestive enzyme salivary amylase, are also present. Salivary amylase initiates the breakdown of starch. Saliva continues to be secreted heavily some time after food is swallowed. This flow of saliva washes out the mouth and dilutes and buffers the chemical remnants of irritating substances.

The Anatomy of Tongue

TONGUE



The tongue, together with its associated muscles, forms the floor of the oral cavity. It is and accessory structure of the digestive system composed of skeletal muscle covered with mucous membrane. The tongue is divided into symmetrical lateral halves by a median septum that extends throughout its entire length and is attached inferiorly to the hyoid bone. Each half of the tongue consists of an identical complement of extrinsic and intrinsic muscles.
The extrinsic muscles of the tongue originate outside the tongue and insert into it. They include the hyoglossus, genioglossus, and styloglossus. The extrinsic muscles move the tongue from side to side and in and out. These movements maneuver food for chewing, shape the food into a rounded mass, and force the food to the back of the mouth for swallowing. They also form the floor of the mouth and hold the tongue in position. The intrinsicmuscles originate and insert within the tongue and alter the shape and size of the tongue for speech and swallowing. The intrinsic muscles include the longitudinalis superior, longitudinalis inferior, transverses linguae, and verticalis linguae. The lingual frenulum, a fold of mucous membrane In the midline of the undersurface of the tongue, aids in limiting the movement of the tongue posteriorly.
The upper surface and sides of the tongue are covered with papillae, projections of the lamina propria covered with epithelium. Filiform papillae are conical projections distributed in parallel rows over the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. They are whitish and contain no taste bud. Fungiform papillae are mushroomlike elevations distributed among the filiform papillae and are more numerous near the tip of the tongue. They appear as red dots on the surface of the tingue, and most of them contain taste buds. Circumvallate papillae, 10 to 12 in number, are arranged in the form of an inverted V on the posterior surface of the tongue, and all of them contain taste buds. 

The Anatomy of Mouth (Oral Cavity)

MOUTH (ORAL CAVITY)


The mouth, also referred to as the oral or buccal cavity, is formed by the cheeks, hard and soft palates, and tongue. Forming the lateral walls of the oral cavity are the cheeks – muscular structures covered on the outside by skin and lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamos  epithelium. The anterior portions of the cheeks terminate in the superior and inferior lips.
The lips (labia) are fleshy folds surrounding the orifice of the mouth. They are covered on the outside by skin and on the inside by a mucous membrane. The transition zone where the two kinds of covering tissue meet is called the vermilion. This portion of the lips is nonkeratinized, and the color of the blood in the underlying blood vessels is visible through the transparent surface layer of the vermilion. The inner surface of each lip is attached to its corresponding gum by a midline fold of mucous membrane called the labial frenulum.
The orbicularis oris muscle and connective tissue lie between the external integumentary covering and the internal mucosal lining. During chewing, the cheeks and lips help keep food between the upper and lower teeth. They also assist in speech.
The vestibule of the oral cavity is bounded externally by the cheeks and lips and internally by the gums and teeth. The oral cavity proper extends from the vestibule to the fauces, the opening between the oral cavity and the pharynx or throat.
The hard palate, the anterior portion of the roof of the mouth, is formed by the maxillae and palatine bones, is covered by mucous membrane, and forms a bony partition between the oral and nasal cavities. The soft palate forms the posterior portion of the roof of the mouth. It is an arch-shaped muscular partition between the oropharynx and nasopharynx and is lined by mucous membrane.
Hanging from the free border of the soft palate is a conical muscular process called the uvula. On either side of the base of the uvula are two muscular folds that run down the lateral side of the soft palate. Anteriorly, the palatoglossal arch (anterior pillar) extends inferiorly, laterally, and anteriorly to the side of the base of the tongue. Posteriorly, the palatopharyngeal arch (posterior pillar) projects inferiorly,nlaterally, and posteriorly to the side of pharynx. The palatine tonsils are situated between the arches, and the lingual tonsil are situated between the arches, and the lingual tonsil is situated at the base of the tongue. At the posterior boder of the soft palate, the mouth opens into the oropharynx through the fauces.